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Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria generated in 1973 and GM mice in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States December in 2003. Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including agriculture, industrial biotechnology, terraforming, and most notably, medicine. History Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection, as well through mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951, one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure. 'Early efforts' In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world’s first transgenic animal. These early achievements led to restrictions on genetic research after a backlash from environmental groups and members the scientific establishment. Activists groups strongly opposed to genetic engineering pushed for increasingly restrictive laws on research and the use of genetic engineering in crops. In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982. The early success of Genentech and the legal victory for genetics companies, led to an explosion of research into Genetically modified crops in the 1980s and 90s. Field trials in France and the US in 1986 introduced herbicide resistant tobacco plants, and transgenetic crops like the Bt Potato and the Flavr Savr tomato all entered mass market during this period. 'Biotech Revolution' Main Article: Biotech bubble In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute, announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome. The researchers added the new genome to bacterial cells and selected for cells that contained the new genome. To do this the cells undergoes a process called resolution, where during bacterial cell division one new cell receives the original DNA genome of the bacteria, whilst the other receives the new synthetic genome. When this cell replicates it uses the synthetic genome as its template. The resulting bacterium the researchers developed, named Synthia, was the world's first synthetic life form. Synthia spawned a new wave research into and public outcry over Genetically modified organisms. Dubbed "Frankenfood," by environmental groups and left-wing politicians, a series of laws were passed across the US and Europe to identify and limit access to GMO foods. The technology saw rapid advances in the 2010s and 2020s with the introduction of CRISPR-based gene editing technologies which radically reduced the cost while increasing the accuracy of gene editing. New government regulations were slow to be adopted, and at the time there were fears that CRISPR would make it possible for anyone to create a "super-bug" or antibiotic resistant bacteria or supervirus. Regulatory reforms during the Booker administration established national programs for researching gene editing technologies and created guidelines for the private sector to begin experimenting with CRISPR. The public backlash against GMOs subsided in the face of the Flood, or more specifically the Famine of 2027 which resulted from the effects of climate change. Government support and funding for GMO crops spawned new strains of heartier corn, wheat, and potatoes that could endure harsher climates, and fish farms began growing strains of Tuna that were modified to handle the drop in salinity of the oceans. European nations began aggressively removing barriers to genetically modified organisms to remain competitive, while China and India faced protests and even riots demanding the import of high-yield rice and wheat strains to end the famine. Many of these new strains were originally developed for use on the Moon and Mars, and research capital from the Space Industry for terraforming GMOs nearly equaled government research funding. On the moon, the first Genetically modified tree, the Hedra Fir, was introduced in Armstrong city on the moon. Genetically modified strains of bacteria were introduced to break up lunar silicates and produce nutrients for a soil base; similar strains were employed across the solar system in early stages of terraforming. On Earth these technologies fueled an explosion in the biotech industry to cater to agribusiness, healthcare, and bio-industry. 'Augment Rights Movement' When humans started being genetically modified, they were discriminated against by law. This led to the Augment Rights Movement which brought an end to such discrimination. Genetically Modified Organisms 'Produce' Genetic engineering in plants is the oldest form of commercially viable genetic technology. During the Famine of 2027, Bio-ethics protocols were relaxed to allow for more GM produce to be produced to feed the hungriest places on Earth. Golden Rice, developed in the early 1990s, was one such GM Plant that benefitted from the new policies. Rich in Beta Carotene, Golden Rice is widely claimed to have solved the problem of Vitamin A deficiencies in Children in underdeveloped countries. Golden Rice was the first of a new generation of GM Foods engineered to be healthier than their traditional cousins. To counter the risk of the new crops intermixing and contaminating those of the natural world, new regulations were put in place that required them to be grown in isolated areas. Agribusiness managed to capitalize on this with the creation of vertical farms in major cities, limiting the cost of exporting their goods, and containing them in a sealed environment. As of 2160, GM Plants account for 70% of the world's produce intake. 'Livestock' Genetically modified beef, poultry, and fish faced far tougher bio-ethics restrictions during their initial development, and for many years following the reforms of the late 2020s, remained tightly controlled by government regulators. It was on Mars where GMO livestock research grew virtually unchecked. The Famine of 2027 pushed regulators to loosen restrictions on genetically modified fish species. Strains of Tuna, salmon, and carp and tillapia were bred to thrive in the more desalinated oceans, but international fishing laws restricted them to fish farms and mobile fish pens, and further regulations placed demands on suicide genes to prevent them from breeding in the wild. During the Refreeze and rewilding projects of the late 21st and early 22nd century, these restrictions were removed and genetically modified/cloned species of fish were re-introduced into the wild. Beef and dairy cattle restrictions were loosened as well, however vat-grown meat had gained popularity as an inexpensive alternative to farmed meat. Perhaps the greatest impact of the Genetic Engineering in livestock was the New Domestication movement of the 2030s. Genetically modified Bison, venison, and elk were introduced for farms with reduced adrenal glands, making them easier to corral. Cloned populations of Mammoth, Moa, and Dodo were created for exotic meat as well. 'Terraforming Organisms' During the leadup to the Mars colonization program, Lunar Energy Ltd. contracted a number of research labs to develop and test genetically modified bacteria in lunar caverns for localized terraforming. Early strains of genetically modified Vostok bacteria were used to break down rock, bioleach atmospheric compounds and soil nutrients to produce a soil-base and buffer atmosphere. Additional research for genetically modified flora produced some of the first complex genetic hybrids, primarily strains including the growth pattern of English Ivy, which took advantage of the low gravity and large walls of the Moon's subsurface caves. The isolated habitats of the Lunar caverns also let terraforming techniques be refined before proceeding to Mars. On Mars more advanced strains were introduced to take advantage of the higher levels of surface radiation, salt and iron rich regolith, and cold surface temperatures. All these initial strains were bred with faulty metabolisms, designed to encourage rapid growth and reproduction, and therefore spread across the planet with relative ease. Later strains of algae, mosses, and lichens were introduced to build up this soil base and process the CO2 rich atmosphere into breathable air. For Mars, any organism introduced had to take advantage of the high concentration of salt and iron in the soil, a process largely achieved by inserting and modifying genes from plants typical of alkali rich soils on Earth. Additional modifications to the pigment of leaves to take advantage of the reduced light from the Sun were typical on Mars. 'Pets' While phosphorescent fish were popular novelty pets in the 2000s and 2010s, it wasn't until the 2020s that GM Pets really came into high demand. Originally some animals were bred using artificial selection to produce tameness, as was the case with the Siberian Fox, however this took decades. Genetic modification sped up the process and gave greater control over desired qualities. The first GM pet to gain widespread popularity, Genetically Stunted Animals or "Cubs," pets modified to stay in their juvenile stage, were introduced in 2024. These modifications made it possible to domesticate many animals previously too wild to keep in captivity. Breeders and kennel clubs initially opposed the use of genetic engineering in dogs as it threatened to destroy their industry by creating countless microbreeds. However, after California passed restrictions against purebreeding (which had led to a generation of inbred and unhealthy dogs being sold at over-inflated prices), several kennel club owners began creating companies to offer designer breeds that were not subject to the same restrictions as purebreds, and did not suffer the same health problems. Dog and cat breeds created in the 2020s and 2030s were noted for being far healthier than their natural counterparts and were generally held much longer lifespans and heightened intelligence to natural pets. By the 2040s, most pets could live almost as long as their owners, and held a similar position in family hierarchies as children in the Agrarian Age. By mid-century GM seals, foxes, big cats, bears, wolves, and birds of prey had become the most popular GM pets on the market, and sterility modifications kept them from contaminating the biosphere or diluting the global pet market. New organisms introduced in the 2050s and 60s were recognized as completely separate species and featured several unique modifiers to their physiology, including unusual pigment and fur patterns, changes in size, and an increased ability to sense the mood and commands of humans. 'Genetically Modified Humans' Genetic engineering in humans was originally developed to screen for genetic deficiencies and hereditary diseases, and for much of its history was afforded only to the super rich. New genome manipulation technologies developed in the 2010s and 2020s eventually made these treatments available for a larger portion of the population, and offered peace of mind to many parents with family illnesses, giving rise to "designer babies." Under the healthcare reforms of the Price administration, these treatments were covered under Medicare as low birthrates reduced any serious burden they would impose on the treasury. 'Designer babies' For the first half of the 21st Century, genetic engineering in humans was conducted primarily through in vitro modification. In the 2010s and 2020s the bulk of these modifications were either used of low-level cosmetic choices (sex, eye-color, melanin levels, and hair color) or to eliminate hereditary illnesses. In either case, these modifications could only be effected from the stock genetic material of the parents. Most developed nations made these treatments available to their citizens for free, and as the technology became more advanced, it became possible to eliminate more hereditary conditions and and effect more cosmetic features. By the Biotech Boom of the 2040s, it was estimated that in 45% of all births in the US, the fetus was selected for beneficial health traits, basic appearance, sex, and even factors influencing sexual orientation. The political backlash from Naturalists at this time was an important feature of the domestic politics of nations in the 2040s, however it was never severe enough to curtail the adoption of the technology. The traits parents selected during the Biotech Boom reflected the culture of the time and influenced it today. In the US, there was a growing preference for eliminating serious mental illnesses by creating more robust dopamine producing glands, light-brown skin, and pansexuality. 'Post-natal augmentations' Following WWIII, genetic modification for humans became increasingly popular among the youth as military research into human augmentation began to transfer into the public market. Athletes, the elderly, and the infirm were the first to receive these modifications. Cosmetic modifications became very popular among the youth, who incorporated animal traits into their genomes to alter their appearances. Several companies were established to provide modifications to sex organs, pheromone production and reception organs to improve their physical attraction between individuals. These technologies spawned a new culture war between members of the Flood Generation and the Made Generation. Socially conservative bio-ethics laws were put in place to limit access to cosmetic genetic enhancements. Some states saw mass migrations of young people escaping extremely severe laws, like California's Human Preservation Act or New Mexico's Heritage Act. By the 2070s human augmentation became more socially acceptable, but legal restrictions against genetic modifications to minors remained in place. Common augmentations were purely decorative while others served specific functions, and were largely derived from existing genetic code in plants and animals. These included tails, skin patterns, fur patches (some as simple as adding color and patterns to existing hair patches) and augmentations that emulated the look and function of animals (eyes, claws, padded feet, reproductive organs, etc.). This spawned what some have called "Genetic Fashion" movements and the birth of "Body Shops," for inexpensive modifications which contributed to new subcultures. The largest of the 2070s genetic subcultures were the Furries, who advocated extensive animal augmentations, in some cases to the point where subcultures became sub-species of humanity. By the early 22nd Century animal modifications had decidedly fallen out of fashion in favor of less flashy custom augmentations that found a larger audience than the counterculture augmentations. Atypical hair color, skin color patterns, bone structures, and in some circles modifications derived from alien lifeforms became more popular. Artificial Bodies Early full-prosthetic bodies were largely bionic in composition, but as genetic engineering of stem-cells developed throughout the 2030s, artificial bodies began to include more biomass, mainly skin and guts. Genetically engineered organs and tissue entered service in specialty bodies available to the military and spacers. By 2040 artificial bodies incorporated a blending of bionic and biologic material in their construction, proving the feasibility of genetically modified organs in humans. During WWIII artificial body technology grew by leaps and bounds, to the point where it was possible to grow a full body from genetically modified tissue. Artificial bodies have been a common practice for individuals who's original bodies are severely damaged or degraded due to biological aging, however since the 2090s, they are also issued in the military for all new recruits. Mil-spec bodies include advanced augmentations for combat and field duties, and were originally developed exclusively for the space force. Cosmetic Augmentations The 2050s saw the first cosmetic genetic modifications gain popularity among the youth despite social conservative backlash. By the 2070s cosmetic augmentations became a relatively common practice across generations and age groups, and has carried forward to today as a practice to enhance the distinctiveness of subcultures, improve physical beauty, and reduce signs of aging. Body Shops are the most common centers for cosmetic modifications, however most governments restrict the degree of modifications they are able to perform to limited modifications to existing appendages, effect skin and eye coloration, and the presence of hair/fur/hide. More advanced cosmetic augmentations are typically administered at Cosmetic Augmentation Centers, which require special licencing in most areas, and cater more to specialized clients, often associated with major subcultures. Federal law requires that any fetus conceived between parents with augmentations must remain essentially human, and cannot receive augmentations until they reach biological maturity. However, this law has largely been ignored by various subspecies of humanity that have emerged as a result. Cloning Human cloning was largely outlawed worldwide until mid-Century. In the lead up to WWIII the US and Japan began relaxing certain policies toward human cloning to enable more rapid innovations in biotech (mostly to create replacement limbs and such). Vat grown bodies are just a form of human cloning after all. But the actual technique of taking a human and making a full genetic copy, brain and all, wasn't legalized until after the war. First in Japan, then South Korea, then Germany, then Russia; all in a space of about 10 years legalized human cloning to try and at least delay their population problems.The way they saw it, it was just a more efficient form of creating designer babies (clones are seldom direct copies, they usually turn off some faulty genes and turn on useful ones). In the US human cloning was made legal after the US supreme court ruled that since it qualified as a form of reproduction, the US government had no right to ban it, keeping with the legal precedent set by Roe v. Wade. It was only brought up because a woman in Maine had used the techniques to create designer babies to clone herself by using her eggs and creating sperm cells from her stem cells, which was a common practice for same sex couples at the time. Once it was legal in the US, several families tried to have kids who were clones of famous dead people (and famous not-so dead people). The genomes of several major historical figures had been sequenced by this point, and were free for any and all to see, so DNA sythesizers could make it possible for anyone to clone a lot of people. Within 9 months of it being legal, there were numerous clones JFKs, FDRs, George Washingtons, Albert Einsteins, and Madonnas. There were persistant rumors that Adolf Hitler was also cloned from Neo-nazi groups around the globe. While these rumors were never confirmed, they did lead to the first laws banning the cloning of certain individuals (primarily those who hold a criminal record). Potential sources of the DNA of such people, such as clothing and other personal belongings, are required to be destroyed. A number of children whose genetic material was largely extracted from historical figures went on to have very similar careers to their genetic parents, however the ratio was roughly the same as the general population. Most parents gave their cloned children the first name of their genetic doner. Current examples include: *Loretta Rockefeller (b. 2110): (Hormone re-engineered clone of John D Rockefeller): Head of the Rockefeller family *Eleanor Roosevelt Appler (b. 2114) (Clone of Ambassador Eleanor Roosevelt): Governor of Michigan (2153 - ) *Robert Kennedy Mackenzie (2064 - 2159) (Clone of Senator Robert F. Kennedy): US Senator from Maine (2139 - 2145) *Rodolfo Erwin Ramirez (2089 - 2138) (Clone of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel): A Brazilian Resistance Leader during the Third Mexican-American War. *Martin Franklin (b. 2090) (Clone of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.): US Attorney General (2157 - ) *Warren McKay (b. 2067) (Clone of Chief Justice Earl Warren): CEO of Tesla Aviation (2101 - 2139) *Ein Mertz (b. 2098) (Clone of Albert Einstein): Theoretical Physicist, Caltech *Laura Galileo McKee (b. 2077) (Hormone re-engineered clone of Galileo Galilei): Astronaut *Nicholas Washington Brittan (b. 2113) (Clone of George Washington, re-engineered slightly due to age of hair sample): US Army Lieutenant General It can also be noted that the number of orders for clones would experience a spike of high demand upon the death of a celebrity. Former US President Lionel Halvidar, for example, held the highest record of 28 million orders shortly after his death by the end of 2160 alone. Category:Technology